Morgan's Rules of Thumb for Understanding Neuroscience

1. In the beginning, God created physics. Much of neurophysiology can be understood with a good understanding of the principles of physics.

2. Studying the nervous system is a bit like studying a foreign language. Many structures have more than one name. Learn as many of them as you can.

3. Structures in the nervous system are most often named after their appearance, location, or function. If you can puzzle out these names, you can often puzzle out the nature of the structure (this is why Latin and/or Greek are good courses for the would-be psychology or biology student to take)

4. You can learn a lot about the brain by paying attention to:
             *the mechanisms by which neurons produce their signals
            *the way in which neurons are connected to one another
            *the relationship between the various patterns of interconnections
             to different types of behavior
            *the means by which neurons and their connections are modified
             by experience.

5. Nature abhors an inequality (diffusion and electrostatic pressure are two forces whose existence testifies to this).

6. One basic rule of thumb about action potentials is the ALL-OR-NONE law, which states that an action potential either occurs, or does not occur, and when it occurs, it travels down the axon in its entirety.

7. The magnitude of the action potential is the same, no matter what the strength of the signal that initiated it. BUT--not every action potential results in the release of the same amount of neurotransmitter. Sometimes a lot is released, sometimes only a little, sometimes none at all. It depends on the status of the axon terminals receiving the action potential (see Rule # 13).

8. Remember, all that an action potential is, is the exchange of sodium and potassium across the membrane of a neuron, resulting in a rapid depolarization and repolarization of the cell membrane (a change in voltage inside from -70mV to +30mV to -70mV again.)

9. It is the type of postsynaptic receptor that is activated (and not the type of neurotransmitter used to activate it) that determines whether or not the postsynaptic cell membrane is hyperpolarized or depolarized by that neurotransmitter's release.

10. Integration of signals is what determines the firing of an action potential (two common means of integration: spatial, and temporal).

11. Dale's Law: any single neuron makes use of the same NT at all of its synapses (well, this is almost a law--there are a few exceptions!)

12. There may be a difference between the effects of a neurotransmitter at the cellular level, and the effects of that neurotransmitter at the organismic level.

13. During an action potential, a neuron may release all, none, or only some of its neurotransmitter substance.

14. In general, the rate of a cell's firing conveys information about the intensity of a stimulus.

15. In general, connections form and cells are maintained or die according to a "use it or lose it" rule (an approach to neuroscience that investigates this aspect of the brain is sometimes referred to as "Neural Darwinism").

16. The way in which neurons are wired together in the nervous system influences how we view the world, and what we perceive.

17. The brain shows lateralization of function, such that the two hemispheres of the cortext serve somewhat different functional roles.

18. In general, the right side of the brain controls the left side of the body, and vice-versa.

19. In general, more is better (ex. more neuronal mass, more skill in whatever area is associated with that mass).

20. The human cortex is arranged in 6 identifiable layers, no matter what its particular thickness might be in any one area.

21. There are many functional redundancies in the nervous system.

22. Nevertheless, function is largely localized in the brain.

23. In general, receptors in the nervous system are maximally responsive to CHANGE.

ADD YOUR OWN RULES AS YOU LEARN MORE..........

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Helpful Hints for Taking Multiple ChoiceTests

(These notes are compiled from a number of sources on success in college, as well as from my own experiences. However, the major source for this material is Ellis, D. (1985). Becoming a Master Student, 5th edition. Rapid City, SD: College Survival, Inc.)

1. Put The Test in Perspective
Tests in and of themselves are not dangerous. Unless turning the pages gives you a paper cut, you cannot be injured by an exam. Yet, we can sometimes react to them as though they were equivalent to a major exploratory surgery performed by Freddie Kruger! One way to aid yourself in taking multiple choice tests, or any other kind of test is to put the exam in perspective. Grades (A through F) are what give tests power. And there are many misconceptions about grades. Grades are not a measure of intelligence. They do not measure creativity, nor social conscience, nor your value on this planet. Grades are simply a measure of how well you did on one test on one particular day.

Some people think that a test score measures what a student has learned in a course. That is false. A test score is a measure of what a student scored on a test. If you are anxious about a test and blank out, then the grade obviously does not represent what you learned. Similarly, if you are good at taking tests and a lucky guesser, your test score also will not be an accurate measure of what you know.

Carrying around misconceptions about tests and grades can put undue pressure on your performance. It is like walking on a railroad track. Most people can stay balanced on the rail for at least 10 feet. However, imagine the track is on a bridge 100 feet above a gorge. The task of walking balanced on the rail then seems entirely different.

It is easier to do well on an exam if you don't exaggerate the pressure on yourself. Don't give tests some magical power over your worth as a human being. Academic tests are usually not a matter of life or death. Even scoring low on very important tests--SAT's GRE's, law boards, medical entrance exams--usually only means a delay.

The real risk (100 ft. fall) or the imagined risk) (F means personal failure) of a performance can reach a point where is is paralyzing. The way to deal with tests is to keep the risk in perspective. Keep the rail on the ground.

2. Prepare for the Test
This seems so obvious, and yet, few people do a really adequate job of preparing for an exam. You should review for exams daily, and weekly, as well as just before the exam. This doesn't need to take as much time as you think! Daily reviews can be very brief--5 or 10 minutes per subject. Daily reviews include the short pre-and post-class review of lecture notes. You can also conduct brief daily reviews when you read. Before you begin a new reading assignment, scan the notes that you made and the sections that your underlined in the previous assignment. Use the time that you spend waiting for the laundry of between classes to conduct these short reviews.

Concentrate daily reviews on two kinds of material: material that you have just learned, either in class or in reading, and material that involves simple memorization (equations, formulas, dates, definitions).

Conduct short daily reviews several times throughout the day. To make sure that you do, include them in a daily "To Do" list. Write down, "5 minute review of biology," or "10 min. review of economics," and then give yourself the satisfaction of crossing them off as you do them.

Weekly reviews are longer--about an hour per subject. These review periods are also more structured that short daily reviews. When a subject is broad or complex, the brain needs more time to process the material. Don't skip from one subject to another too quickly. The content of weekly review sessions should include a review of all of the assigned readings, review of lecture notes and handouts, and practice answering questions in study guides or in your own notes. Look over any flashcards or other study devices that you have created.

Major reviews should commence about a week before a major test. They integrate concepts and deepen understanding of the material. These should be longer review periods, two to five hours at a stretch, punctuated by sufficient breaks. Remember that your attention begins to be reduced after about an hour or so unless you give yourself a short rest.

After a certain point, short breaks every hour will not be enough to keep your attention from wandering. That's when it's time to quit. Each of us has our own limit. Learn what your limits are by being conscious of the quality of your concentration. During long study sessions, start by reviewing the most difficult material first, when you are most alert.
To combat procrastination, create a system of rewards for yourself, for time spent reviewing. Two hours of real work equals one hour in The Loft, for ex. Make yourself promises, and keep them! Your commitment to review is your most powerful ally.

3. Use the Study Guide (or Create Your Own)
Study guides are used the way a pilot uses a pre-flight check list. Pilots go through a standard routine before they take off. They physically mark off each item: test flaps, check magneto, check fuel tanks, adjust instruments, check rudder. They use a written list to be absolutely sure that they don't miss anything. Once they are in the air, it's too late, and the consequences of making an error are drastic.

Taking a test is like flying a plane. Once the exam begins, it's too late to memorize that one equation that you forgot. And the consequences could be unpleasant! Use your study guide handed out in class as your personal pre-exam checklist. Then, when you conduct your final review, check off items as you review them. If your instructor does not give you a study guide, make your own. List the various types of problems you will need to solve. Write down other skills you must master--major ideas, definitions, theories, formulas, dates, etc.

4. Predict What Will Be On the Test
In this class, I give you a study guide to help you in this endeavor. However, I also give you many other clues, which you can look for in other classes as well.

If you haven't done so in your other courses, ask your instructor to describe the test format--how long will it be, what kind of questions, etc. Keep a separate section in your notebook for a course called "Possible Test Questions." Add several of them after each lecture and after you read assignments for the course.

In lectures you can watch for potential test questions by observing not only WHAT the instructor says, but HOW s/he says it. Instructors give clues. They might repeat a point several times, or write it on the board, or return to it in subsequent classes. Pay attention to questions that the instructor poses to the class. Note the questions that other students ask. When material from reading assignments is also covered in class, it is likely to be on the test.

5. Test-Taking in General
If there are not too many questions, answer the easiest ones first. This gives you the experience of success and stimulates associations, preparing your mind for the more difficult questions.

Use memory techniques if you're stuck. If your recall on a particular point is blocked, remember something else that's related. Draw outlines or other notes in the test margin to stimulate your memory.

Pace yourself. Watch the time; is you are stuck, move on. Don't let one difficult question cost you many points in unanswered questions.

Look for answers in other test questions. A term, a name, date, or other fact that escapes you in one place might show up elsewhere on the test itself. If there is more than one question on the same concept or topic, check to see that your answers agree with one another.

6. Multiple-Choice Tests in Particular
A. READ THE DIRECTIONS on the top of your exam. Some multiple choice tests call for more than one correct answer. Some ask for the one best answer. Be sure you know what is expected of you.

B. Answer each question in your head BEFORE you look at the possible answers. If you can come up with the answer before you look at the choices, you eliminate the possibility of being confused by those choices.

C. Make a notation next to questions that you can't answer immediately, and go on. Come back to those later if you have time.

D. Multiple-choice questions have an anatomy. The "question" part is called a stem, and it should lead grammatically to one or more of four or five options listed directly under it. One of these is the correct answer. The others are called distractors, or decoys.

      Ex. According to your text, psychology is defined as: {STEM}
            a. study of behavior {DISTRACTOR}
            b. study of individual differences {DISTRACTOR}
            c. science of behavior and the mind {CORRECT ANSWER}
            d. study of mental phenomena {DISTRACTOR}

It is very important that you make yourself READ EVERY POSSIBLE ANSWER. Don't be in a rush to mark the first option that sounds good. In some questions, ALL the options might be correct, and you have to choose the best one, or the one that says "all of the above." You won't know this unless you read all the options. One way to train yourself to do this is to treat each multiple -choice question as four true-false questions. Eliminate those that you know to be false by crossing them off on your test. Of course, there may always be a few potential answers that you are unable to judge as true or false. However, if you can decide that more than one answer is true, and the test does not call for more than one correct answer, re-read the question again to make sure that you have interpreted it correctly. Then look for an answer such as "all of the above." If there is such an answer, choose it. If there is NOT, re-evaluate your decisions on the truth or falsity of the answers you have considered.

E. Eliminate answers that you KNOW are distractors. Cross them off on your exam sheet. Even if you have only a few minutes to go back to a question, you will have narrowed your choices and increased your chances of guessing the correct answer, if you end up having to guess.

F. If you do not understand a question, or the meaning of a word, or the meaning of a possible answer, ASK ME!!! The worst I can do is say "I can't answer that." The best I can do is tell you the right answer! If you have ANY doubt about your interpretations of a question, ask me to confirm your understanding. Don't twist the questions into something thatthey are not. Be sure that you are answering what you are asked, and nothing more.

G. Be cautious when an answer includes such absolute words as "every", "always", and "never." There are very few situations in which something is always true or never true.

H. Look for key words and phrases in both stem and possible answers. (Ex. Which of the following is not..." or "According to you text..." or "The strongest evidence....") Sometimes I point out this key to you by underlining it, or putting it in bold face, or capitol letters These should be used as clues.

I. If you STILL have no clue, and if you are not penalized for guessing, use the following guidelines to guess:
        1. If two answers are similar, except for one or two words,
            choose one of these answers.
        2. If two answers have similar sounding or looking words
            (ex. intermediate, intermittent), choose one of these answers.
        3. If the answer calls for a sentence completion, eliminate those
            answers that would not form a grammatically correct sentence.
        4. If there is no penalty for guessing and none of these techniques
            work, close your eyes and go for it. Unless you are penalized(br>for guessing,
            NEVER LEAVE A QUESTION BLANK!!!